Possible Risk Factors and Their Potential Associations with Combined Heavy Metal Exposures in Pregnant Women in the Republic of Suriname.

Background: The exposure of pregnant women to multiple environmental pollutants may be more disadvantageous to birth outcomes when compared to single-compound contaminations. Objective: This study investigated the mixed exposures to mercury, manganese, or lead in 380 pregnant Surinamese women. The factors that might be associated with the heavy metal exposures and the relative risk of the potential factors to cause the mixed exposures were explored. The influencing factors of exposures to mixed contaminants assessed were living in Suriname's rural regions, several parts of which are contaminated with heavy metals emitted from artisanal and small-scale gold mining and agricultural activities; the consumption of potentially contaminated foods; advanced maternal age; as well as a relatively low formal educational level and monthly household income. Methods: Descriptive statistics were used to calculate frequency distributions and χ2-contingency analyses to calculate associations and relative risks (RR) with 95% confidence intervals (CI). Findings: Blood levels of two or three of the heavy metals above public health limits were observed in 36% of the women. These women were more often residing in the rural regions, primarily consumed potentially contaminated food items, were 35 years or older, were lower educated, and more often had a lower household income. However, only living in the rural regions (RR = 1.48; 95% CI 1.23-1.77) and a low household income (RR = 1.38; 95% CI 1.15-1.66) significantly increased the risk of exposure exceeding levels of concern to two or three of the heavy metals (by 48% and 38%, respectively). Conclusion: More comprehensive pharmacological, ecological, and epidemiological studies about exposures to mixed heavy metal contaminations in pregnant women are warranted.

Contrasting mercury contamination scenarios and site susceptibilities confound fish mercury burdens in Suriname, South America.

In Suriname, mercury (Hg) use has recently increased because of gold mining, which has put fish-reliant communities (e.g., Indigenous and Tribal) at risk of enhanced Hg exposure through the riverine fish these communities consume. To quantify how the magnitude of these risks change according to location and time, we measured total mercury (HgT) in fish at sites downstream and upstream of an artisanal and small-scale gold mining (ASGM) operation in 2004-2005 and in 2017-2018. We tested whether fish HgT burdens over dynamic ranges were increased. Surprisingly, our findings did not support broadly increased fish Hg burden over time or that proximity to ASGM was diagnostic to fish HgT-burden. Subsequently, we elected to test the HgT stable isotope ratios on a set of freshly collected 2020 fish to determine whether differences in Hg source and delivery pathways might cofound results. We found that remote unmined sites were more susceptible to gaseous elemental Hg deposition pathways, leading to enhanced risk of contamination, whereas ASGM proximate sites were not. These results highlight that elemental mercury releases from ASGM practices may have significant impact on fish-reliant communities that are far removed from ASGM point source contamination.

Anticipated benefits and challenges of implementing group care in Suriname's maternity and child care sector: a contextual analysis.

BACKGROUND: Suriname is a uppermiddle-income country with a relatively high prevalence of preventable pregnancy complications. Access to and usage of high-quality maternity care services are lacking. The implementation of group care (GC) may yield maternal and child health improvements. However, before introducing a complex intervention it is pivotal to develop an understanding of the local context to inform the implementation process. METHODS: A context analysis was conducted to identify local needs toward maternity and postnatal care services, and to assess contextual factor relevant to implementability of GC. During a Rapid Qualitative Inquiry, 63 online and face-to-face semi-structured interviews were held with parents, community members, on-and off-site healthcare professionals, policy makers, and one focus group with parents was conducted. Audio recordings were transcribed in verbatim and analysed using thematic analysis and Framework Method. The Consolidated Framework for Implementation Research served as a base for the coding tree, which was complemented with inductively derived codes. RESULTS: Ten themes related to implementability, one theme related to sustainability, and seven themes related to reaching and participation of the target population in GC were identified. Factors related to health care professionals (e.g., workload, compatibility, ownership, role clarity), to GC, to recipients and to planning impact the implementability of GC, while sustainability is in particular hampered by sparse financial and human resources. Reach affects both implementability and sustainability. Yet, outer setting and attitudinal barriers of health professionals will likely affect reach. CONCLUSIONS: Multi-layered contextual factors impact not only implementability and sustainability of GC, but also reach of parents. We advise future researchers and implementors of GC to investigate not only determinants for implementability and sustainability, but also those factors that may hamper, or facilitate up-take. Practical, attitudinal and cultural barriers to GC participation need to be examined. Themes identified in this study will inspire the development of adaptations and implementation strategies at a later stage.

The Single and Combined Effects of Prenatal Nonchemical Stressors and Lead Exposure on Neurodevelopmental Outcomes in Toddlers: Results from the CCREOH Environmental Epidemiologic Study in Suriname.

The primary aim of this prospective study was to examine the single and combined effect of prenatal exposure to perceived stress, probable depression, and lead on toddlers' neurodevelopment using the Bayley Scales of Infant and Toddler Development, third edition. Data from 363 mother-toddler pairs enrolled in the Caribbean Consortium for Research in Environmental and Occupational Health prospective cohort study were analyzed. A prenatal lead exposure of ≥3.5 µg/dL was associated with significantly lower receptive (p = 0.008) and expressive (p = 0.006) communication scaled scores. Moderate and severe maternal prenatal probable depression scores were associated with significantly lower fine (p = 0.009) and gross (p = 0.009) motor scaled scores. However, a maternal report of prenatal stress was not associated with neurodevelopmental outcomes. After adjusting for maternal demographics, prenatal stress and lead exposure, prenatal probable depression remained predictive of the toddlers' gross motor scaled scores (ß -0.13, 95% CI [-0.24--0.02]). Similarly, when adjusting for demographics, prenatal stress and probable depression, prenatal lead exposure remained a significant predictor of their receptive communication scaled scores (ß -0.26, 95% CI [-0.49--0.02]). An analysis testing combined exposure to perceived stress, probable depression, and lead exposure, measured using a cumulative risk index, significantly predicted the child fine motor scaled scores after adjusting for other covariates (ß -0.74, 95% CI: [-1.41--0.01]).

Geographic differences in exposures to metals and essential elements in pregnant women living in Suriname.

BACKGROUND: In Suriname, 20% of pregnancies end in adverse birth outcomes. While prenatal exposure to metals may lead to adverse health outcomes, exposure assessments in Suriname are scant. Environmental contamination from mercury (Hg) used in artisanal goldmining in the Amazonian Interior, and the uncontrolled use of pesticides in suburban regions are of particular concern. OBJECTIVE: This study assessed geographic differences in exposures to metals and essential elements in pregnant Surinamese women. METHODS: This study is a subset (n = 400) of the Caribbean Consortium for Research in Environmental and Occupational Health (CCREOH) cohort study. Sector-field inductively-coupled plasma mass spectrometry was used to determine concentrations of lead (Pb), Hg, selenium (Se), cadmium (Cd), manganese (Mn) and tin (Sn) in whole blood of the pregnant women. High vs. low exposures to Pb and Hg were determined and were based respectively on CDC (3.5 ug/dL) and USEPA (3.5 ug/L) action levels. Differences in geographic exposures were tested with the Mann-Whitney U-test, and differences between blood elemental concentrations and action levels for Pb and Hg with the Wilcoxon signed rank test. The association between demographics and high exposures of Pb and Hg was examined with multivariate logistic regression models. RESULTS: The median concentrations of Pb, Hg and Se (5.08 µg/dL, 7.87 µg/L, and 228.26 µg/L respectively) in Interior women, were higher than the Urban and Suburban regions (p < 0.001), and higher than internationally accepted action levels (p < 0.001). The median concentrations of Mn and Sn found in Suburban women (17.55 and 0.97 ug/L respectively) were higher than Urban and Interior regions (p < 0.02). SIGNIFICANCE: Pregnant women living in Suriname's Amazonian Interior are exposed to Hg and Pb at levels of public health concern. Urgently needed is a comprehensive source characterization assessment and the development, implementation and monitoring of environmental health policies, specifically addressing the chemicals of concern. IMPACT: In a subset of participants enrolled in the CCREOH environmental epidemiology cohort study elevated levels of Hg and Pb were identified. This is the first comprehensive exposure assessment in the Surinamese population. Health concerns include adverse birth- and neurodevelopmental outcomes. Geographic differences require a tailored approach to health intervention and comprehensive source characterization. Future research should ascertain the role of Se as a potential protective factor. Environmental policy development, implementation and monitoring is pivotal to mitigate exposures to these neurotoxicants.

Characterization of Urinary Pesticide Metabolite Concentrations of Pregnant Women in Suriname.

Prenatal exposure to pesticides and the association with adverse health outcomes have been examined in several studies. However, the characterization of pesticide exposure among Surinamese women during pregnancy has not been assessed. As part of the Caribbean Consortium of Research in Environmental and Occupational Health research program, 214 urine samples were collected from pregnant women living in three regions in Suriname with different agricultural practices: capital Paramaribo, the rice producing district Nickerie, and the tropical rainforest, the Interior. We used isotope dilution tandem mass spectrometry to quantify urinary concentrations of biomarkers of three pesticide classes, including phenoxy acid herbicides and organophosphate and pyrethroid insecticides, all of which are commonly used in agricultural and residential settings in Suriname. We observed that participants residing in Nickerie had the highest urinary metabolite concentrations of 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid and pyrethroids compared to those from Paramaribo or the Interior. Paramaribo had the highest concentrations of organophosphate metabolites, specifically dialkyl phosphate metabolites. Para-nitrophenol was detected in samples from Paramaribo and the Interior. Samples from Nickerie had higher median urinary pesticide concentrations of 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (1.06 µg/L), and the following metabolites, 3,5,6-trichloro-2-pyridinol (1.26 µg/L), 2-isopropyl-4-methyl-6-hydroxypyrimidine (0.60 µg/L), and 3-phenoxybenzoic acid (1.34 µg/L), possibly due to residential use and heavy rice production.

The Association between Mercury and Lead Exposure and Liver and Kidney Function in Pregnant Surinamese Women Enrolled in the Caribbean Consortium for Research in Environmental and Occupational Health (CCREOH) Environmental Epidemiologic Cohort Study.

Exposure to mercury (Hg) and lead (Pb) may have an effect on pregnant women. We assessed the effect of exposure to mercury and lead on liver and kidney functions in a subcohort of pregnant women who participated in the Caribbean Consortium for Research in Environmental and Occupational Health (CCREOH)­Meki Tamara, study. From 400 women aged 16−46 living in rural, urban, and interior regions of Suriname, we measured blood mercury and blood lead levels. Creatinine, urea, and cystatin C were measured to assess kidney function, and aspartate amino transferase (AST), alanine amino transferase (ALT), and gamma-glutamyl transferase (GGT) were measured to assess liver function. Education, region, and ethnicity showed significant differences for both blood mercury and lead levels, which all had p-values < 0.001. Creatinine and urea were elevated with higher mercury blood levels. Our findings also suggest a relationship between high mercury blood levels and potential harmful effects on liver and kidney function.

Sociodemographic Influences on Perceived Stress during Pregnancy: Results from the CCREOH Environmental Epidemiologic Study, Suriname.

Screening for prenatal stress is not routine in Suriname, despite its significant impact on maternal and newborn health. This study assessed the prevalence of high perceived prenatal stress and its sociodemographic predictors in three geographic areas in Suriname. In this cross-sectional study, data from 1190 participants of the Caribbean Consortium for Research in Environmental and Occupational Health cohort study were analyzed. Cohen's Perceived Stress Scale was completed during pregnancy to ascertain high perceived stress (cut-off score 20). The association between maternal sociodemographic factors and high perceived stress was examined using the chi-square test and logistic regression models; 27.5% of all participants had high perceived stress with statistically significant lower rates in Nickerie (18.8%) compared with Paramaribo (29.8%; p = 0.001) and the Interior (28.6%; p = 0.019). Maternal sociodemographic factors moderated the difference between the Interior and Nickerie. Participants from Paramaribo had statistically significant higher odds of high perceived stress compared to those from Nickerie, independent of their age and educational level (adjusted OR = 1.94; 95% confidence interval 1.32-2.86). Perceived stress during pregnancy is predicted by sociodemographic factors. These findings identified target groups for interventions in Suriname. Policy makers should consider integrating perceived stress assessment as a routine part of prenatal care.

Prenatal Exposure to Mercury, Manganese, and Lead and Adverse Birth Outcomes in Suriname: A Population-Based Birth Cohort Study.

Globally, adverse birth outcomes are increasingly linked to prenatal exposure to environmental contaminants, such as mercury, manganese, and lead. This study aims to assess an association between prenatal exposure to mercury, manganese, and lead and the occurrence of adverse birth outcomes in 380 pregnant women in Suriname. The numbers of stillbirths, preterm births, low birth weights, and low Apgar scores were determined, as well as blood levels of mercury, manganese, lead, and relevant covariates. Descriptive statistics were calculated using frequency distributions. The associations between mercury, manganese, and lead blood levels, on the one hand, and adverse birth outcomes, on the other hand, were explored using contingency tables, tested with the χ2-test (Fisher's exact test), and expressed with a p value. Multivariate logistic regression models were computed to explore independent associations and expressed as (adjusted) odds ratios (aOR) with 95% confidence intervals (CI). The findings of this study indicate no statistically significant relationship between blood mercury, manganese, or lead levels and stillbirth, preterm birth, low birth weight, and low Apgar score. However, the covariate diabetes mellitus (aOR 5.58, 95% CI (1.38-22.53)) was independently associated with preterm birth and the covariate hypertension (aOR 2.72, 95% CI (1.081-6.86)) with low birth weight. Nevertheless, the observed high proportions of pregnant women with blood levels of mercury, manganese, and lead above the reference levels values of public health concern warrants environmental health research on risk factors for adverse birth outcomes to develop public health policy interventions to protect pregnant Surinamese women and their newborns from potential long-term effects.

Poor Adherence to the WHO Guidelines on Feeding Practices Increases the Risk for Respiratory Infections in Surinamese Preschool Children.

Poor feeding practices in infants and young children may lead to malnutrition, which, in turn, is associated with an increased risk of infectious diseases, such as respiratory tract infections (RTIs), a leading cause of under-five mortality. We explored the association between RTIs and the WHO infant and young child feeding (IYCF) indicators: minimum dietary diversity (MDD), minimum meal frequency (MMF), and minimum acceptable diet (MAD), among infants and preschool children in Suriname. A validated pediatric food frequency questionnaire was used and data on RTIs, defined as clinical care for fever with respiratory symptoms, bronchitis, or pneumonia were obtained. Associations between feeding indicators and RTIs were explored using hierarchical logistic regression. Of 763 children aged 10-33 months, 51.7% achieved the MDD, 88.5% the MMF, and 46.5% the MAD. Furthermore, 73% of all children experienced at least one upper and/or lower RTI. Children meeting the MDD and MAD had significantly lower odds on RTIs (OR 0.53; 95%CI: 0.37-0.74, p < 0.001; OR 0.55; 95%CI: 0.39-0.78, p < 0.001, respectively). The covariates parity and household income were independently associated with RTIs. In conclusion, MDD and MAD were associated with (upper) RTIs. Whether these indicators can be used as predictors for increased risk for RTIs should be assessed in future prospective studies.

The Cumulative Risk of Prenatal Exposures to Chemical and Non-Chemical Stressors on Birth Outcomes in Suriname.

The cumulative exposure to chemical and non-chemical stressors may have an impact on birth outcomes. The aim of this study is to examine the cumulative exposure of a mixture of chemicals (mercury, lead, selenium and tin) and non-chemical stressors (social support, perceived stress, probable depression and BMI) on birth outcomes (birthweight, gestational age at birth, and Apgar score at 5 min). The study population is a subset (n = 384) of the Caribbean Consortium for Research in Environmental and Occupational Health-MeKiTamara prospective cohort study. Associations between the latent chemical construct, non-chemical stressors and birth outcomes were assessed using path models. The results showed a significant direct relationship between perceived stress and birthweight (ß = -0.17), however even though the relationship between perceived stress and depression was significant in all three path models (ß = 0.61), the association between depression and birth outcomes was not significant. Perceived stress was significantly associated with community engagement (ß = -0.12) and individual resilience (ß = -0.12). BMI (ß = 0.12) was also significantly directly associated with birthweight. The latent chemical construct did not show an association with the birth outcomes. Our data indicate the need for the development of a support system for pregnant women by involving them in prenatal care programs to reduce maternal stress, which may also influence depression and (in)directly improve the birth outcomes. Interventions regarding weight management for women of childbearing age are necessary to halt obesity and its negative effects on birth outcomes.

Association of Mercury Exposure and Maternal Sociodemographics on Birth Outcomes of Indigenous and Tribal Women in Suriname.

Information regarding adverse birth outcomes (ABO) of Indigenous and Tribal women living in the remote tropical rainforest of Suriname, where mercury (Hg) use is abundant in artisanal gold mining, is not available. In the context of a health system analysis, we examined the association between Hg exposure, maternal sociodemographics on the ABO of Indigenous and Tribal women living in Suriname's interior and its capital, Paramaribo. ABO were determined in pregnant women enrolled from December 2016 to July 2019 in the Caribbean Consortium for Environmental and Occupational Health prospective environmental epidemiologic cohort study. Associations were explored using Pearson's χ2-test and the Mann-Whitney U-test. Among 351 singleton participants, 32% were Indigenous, residing mainly in the interior (86.8%), and 23.1% had ABO. Indigenous participants had higher rates of ABO (29.8% vs. 19.8%) and preterm birth (PTB) (21.2% vs. 12.4%), higher Hg levels, delivered at a younger age, were less educated, and had lower household income compared to Tribal participants. Multivariate logistic regression models revealed that Indigenous participants had higher odds of ABO (OR = 3.60; 95% CI 1.70-7.63) and PTB (OR = 3.43; 95% CI 1.48-7.96) compared with Tribal participants, independent of Hg exposure and age at delivery. These results highlight the importance of effective risk reduction measures in support of Indigenous mothers, families, and communities.

Influence of perceived stress on prenatal depression in Surinamese women enrolled in the CCREOH study.

BACKGROUND: Prenatal depression may have adverse health effects on mothers and their offspring. Perceived stress is an important risk factor for depression during pregnancy. Studies have shown that both perceived stress and depression may negatively influence birth outcomes. While 20% of pregnancies in Suriname, a middle-income Caribbean country located in northern South America, results in adverse birth outcomes, data on prenatal depression and its risk factors are lacking. This study aimed to assess the influence of perceived stress on depression during pregnancy in Surinamese women. METHODS: Survey data were used from 1143 pregnant women who participated in the Caribbean Consortium for Research in Environmental and Occupational Health-MeKiTamara prospective cohort study that addresses the impact of chemical and non-chemical environmental exposures in mother/child dyads in Suriname. The Edinburgh Depression Scale and Cohen Perceived Stress Scale were used to screen for probable depression (cut-off ≥ 12) and high stress (cut-off ≥ 20), respectively. The association between perceived stress and depression was examined using bivariate and multiple logistic regression analyses, adjusted for social support (including resilience) and maternal demographics. RESULTS: The prevalence of high perceived stress during the first two trimesters and the third trimester were 27.2% and 24.7% respectively. 22.4% of the participants had probable depression during first or second trimester and 17.6% during the third trimester. Women experiencing high stress levels during the first two trimesters had 1.92 increased odds (95% CI 1.18-3.11, p = 0.008) of having probable depression during the third trimester of pregnancy than those with low stress levels. Pregnant women with low individual resilience during early pregnancy (52.1%) had 1.65 (95% CI 1.03-2.63, p = 0.038) increased odds of having probable depression during later stages of pregnancy compared to those with high individual resilience. Low educational level (p = 0.004) and age of the mother (20-34 years) (p = 0.023) were significantly associated with probable depression during the third trimester. CONCLUSIONS: Early detection and management of stress and depression during pregnancy are important. Health education programs, targeting the reduction of stress during pregnancy, may help to reduce depression and its potential adverse health effects on the mother and child.

Depression during pregnancy may lead to adverse health effects in mothers and children. While one in five pregnancies resulted in an adverse birth outcome in Suriname, and perceived stress and depression are important risk factors for birth outcomes, data on depression and its risk factors are lacking. This study aimed to determine the association between perceived stress and prenatal depression in Surinamese pregnant women participating in the Caribbean Consortium for Research in Environmental and Occupational Health-MeKiTamara study.A total of 1143 pregnant women were included in the study. Using questionnaires, data was collected on demographic factors, perceived stress, social support (including resilience), and probable depression.Perceived stress was somewhat higher during the first two trimesters (27.2%), than the third trimester (24.7%). This was also the case for probable depression; higher during the first two trimesters (22.4%) than during the third trimester (17.6%). The study found a statistically significant association of high perceived stress, low perceived individual resilience, lower education and older maternal age with probable depression during pregnancy.Early detection and effective management of perceived stress and depression during pregnancy are very important. There is a need for prenatal clinics in Suriname to routinely screen for symptoms of perceived stress and depression to minimize the potential impact on mother and child. Health education programs, targeting the reduction of stress during pregnancy, may help to reduce depression and its potential adverse health effects on the mother and child.

Prenatal Mercury Exposure in Pregnant Women from Suriname's Interior and Its Effects on Birth Outcomes.

Prenatal mercury (Hg) exposure was determined in a sub-cohort of the Caribbean Consortium for Environmental and Occupational Health's environmental epidemiologic prospective cohort study of pregnant women living in Suriname's interior. The associations between Hg exposure, low birth weight (LBW, <2500 g) and preterm birth (PTB, <37 weeks) were explored. Correlation analysis, Fisher's exact test and logistic regression analyses were conducted to evaluate the associations between maternal hair Hg levels and birth weight, LBW and PTB, and between potential confounders, LBW and PTB, respectively. Among 204 singleton births were 198 live births, five stillbirths and one miscarriage. The mean participant age was 26 years; 15.7% of participants had PTBs and 8.1% delivered a child with a LBW. The median hair Hg level was 3.48 µg/g hair. Low hair Hg exposure, based on lowest tertile < 2.34 µg/g, was associated with LBW (OR = 7.2; 95% CI 1.5-35.6; p = 0.015); this association was independent of maternal age, ethnic background, household income and village location, and no correlation was found between hair Hg and PTB. Young maternal age was associated with PTB (RR = 5.09, 95% CI: 1.92-13.85; p = 0.0004) while maternal age was not associated with hair Hg or LBW. The impact of prenatal Hg exposure on pediatric neurodevelopment is currently being evaluated in the infant sub-cohort.

Influence of Prenatal Exposure to Mercury, Perceived Stress, and Depression on Birth Outcomes in Suriname: Results from the MeKiTamara Study.

Prenatal exposure to mercury, stress, and depression may have adverse effects on birth outcomes. Little is known on the influence of chemical and non-chemical stressors on birth outcomes in the country of Suriname. We assessed the influence of prenatal exposure to mercury, perceived stress, and depression on adverse birth outcomes in 1143 pregnant Surinamese women who participated in the Caribbean Consortium for Research in Environmental and Occupational Health-MeKiTamara prospective cohort study. Associations between mercury (≥1.1 µg/g hair, USEPA action level/top versus bottom quartile), probable depression (Edinburgh Depression Scale ≥12), high perceived stress (Cohen's Perceived Stress Scale ≥20), and adverse birth outcomes (low birthweight (<2500 g), preterm birth (<37 completed weeks of gestation), and low Apgar score (<7 at 5 min)) were assessed using bivariate and multivariate logistic regressions. Prevalence of elevated mercury levels, high perceived stress, and probable depression were 37.5%, 27.2%, and 22.4%, respectively. Mercury exposure was significantly associated with preterm birth in the overall study cohort (OR 2.47; 95% CI 1.05-5.83) and perceived stress with a low Apgar score (OR 9.73; 95% CI 2.03-46.70). Depression was not associated with any birth outcomes. These findings can inform policy- and practice-oriented solutions to improve maternal and child health in Suriname.

Quantifying the burden of stillbirths before 28 weeks of completed gestational age in high-income countries: a population-based study of 19 European countries.

BACKGROUND: International comparisons of stillbirth allow assessment of variations in clinical practice to reduce mortality. Currently, such comparisons include only stillbirths from 28 or more completed weeks of gestational age, which underestimates the true burden of stillbirth. With increased registration of early stillbirths in high-income countries, we assessed the reliability of including stillbirths before 28 completed weeks in such comparisons. METHODS: In this population-based study, we used national cohort data from 19 European countries participating in the Euro-Peristat project on livebirths and stillbirths from 22 completed weeks of gestation in 2004, 2010, and 2015. We excluded countries without national data for stillbirths by gestational age in these periods, or where data available were not comparable between 2004 and 2015. We also excluded those countries with fewer than 10 000 births per year because the proportion of stillbirths at 22 weeks to less than 28 weeks of gestation is small. We calculated pooled stillbirth rates using a random-effects model and changes in rates between 2004 and 2015 using risk ratios (RR) by gestational age and country. FINDINGS: Stillbirths at 22 weeks to less than 28 weeks of gestation accounted for 32% of all stillbirths in 2015. The pooled stillbirth rate at 24 weeks to less than 28 weeks declined from 0·97 to 0·70 per 1000 births from 2004 to 2015, a reduction of 25% (RR 0·75, 95% CI 0·65-0·85). The pooled stillbirth rate at 22 weeks to less than 24 weeks of gestation in 2015 was 0·53 per 1000 births and did not significantly changed over time (RR 0·97, 95% CI 0·80-1·16) although changes varied widely between countries (RRs 0·62-2·09). Wide variation in the percentage of all births occurring at 22 weeks to less than 24 weeks of gestation suggest international differences in ascertainment. INTERPRETATION: Present definitions used for international comparisons exclude a third of stillbirths. International consistency of reporting stillbirths at 24 weeks to less than 28 weeks suggests these deaths should be included in routinely reported comparisons. This addition would have a major impact, acknowledging the burden of perinatal death to families, and making international assessments more informative for clinical practice and policy. Ascertainment of fetal deaths at 22 weeks to less than 24 weeks should be stabilised so that all stillbirths from 22 completed weeks of gestation onwards can be reliably compared. FUNDING: EU Union under the framework of the Health Programme and the Bridge Health Project.

International variations in the gestational age distribution of births: an ecological study in 34 high-income countries.

Background: Few studies have investigated international variations in the gestational age (GA) distribution of births. While preterm births (22-36 weeks GA) and early term births (37-38 weeks) are at greater risk of adverse health outcomes compared to full term births (39-40 weeks), it is not known if countries with high preterm birth rates also have high early term birth rates. We examined rate associations between preterm and early term births and mean term GA by mode of delivery onset. Methods: We used routine aggregate data on the GA distribution of singleton live births from up to 34 high-income countries/regions in 1996, 2000, 2004, 2008 and 2010 to study preterm and early term births overall and by spontaneous or indicated onset. Pearson correlation coefficients were adjusted for clustering in time trend analyses. Results: Preterm and early term births ranged from 4.1% to 8.2% (median 5.5%) and 15.6% to 30.8% (median 22.2%) of live births in 2010, respectively. Countries with higher preterm birth rates in 2004-2010 had higher early term birth rates (r > 0.50, P < 0.01) and changes over time were strongly correlated overall (adjusted-r = 0.55, P < 0.01) and by mode of onset. Conclusion: Positive associations between preterm and early term birth rates suggest that common risk factors could underpin shifts in the GA distribution. Targeting modifiable population risk factors for delivery before 39 weeks GA may provide a useful preterm birth prevention paradigm.

Can the Apgar Score be Used for International Comparisons of Newborn Health?

BACKGROUND: The Apgar score has been shown to be predictive of neonatal mortality in clinical and population studies, but has not been used for international comparisons. We examined population-level distributions in Apgar scores and associations with neonatal mortality in Europe. METHODS: Aggregate data on the 5 minute Apgar score for live births and neonatal mortality rates from countries participating in the Euro-Peristat project in 2004 and 2010 were analysed. Country level associations between the Apgar score and neonatal mortality were assessed using the Spearman rank correlation coefficient. RESULTS: Twenty-three countries or regions provided data on Apgar at 5 minutes, covering 2 183 472 live births. Scores <7 ranged from 0.3% to 2.4% across countries in 2004 and 2010 and were correlated over time (ρ = 0.88, P < 0.01). There were large differences in healthy baby scores: scores of 10 ranged from 8.8% to 92.7% whereas scores of 9 or 10 ranged from 72.9% to 96.8%. Countries more likely to score 10 s, as opposed to 9 s, for healthy babies had lower proportions of Apgar <7 (ρ = -0.43, P = 0.04). Neonatal mortality rates were weakly correlated with Apgar score <7 (ρ = -0.06, P = 0.61), but differences over time in these two indicators were correlated (ρ =0.56, P = 0.02). CONCLUSIONS: Large variations in the distribution of Apgar scores likely due to national scoring practices make the Apgar score an unsuitable indicator for benchmarking newborn health across countries. However, country-level trends over time in the Apgar score may reflect real changes and merit further investigation.

Prevalence, determinants and genetic diversity of hepatitis C virus in the multi-ethnic population living in Suriname.

Little is known about the epidemiology of HCV in Suriname, a former Dutch colony in South America. To study the prevalence, determinants and genetic diversity of HCV, a one-month survey was conducted at the only Emergency Department in the capital Paramaribo. Participants (≥18 years) completed an interviewer-led standardized HCV risk-factor questionnaire, were tested for HCV-antibodies, and if positive also for HCV RNA. The overall HCV prevalence was 1.0% (22/2128 participants; 95%CI 0.7-1.5). Male sex (OR=4.11; 95%CI 1.30-13.01), older age (OR=1.06 per year increase; 95%CI 1.04-1.09), Javanese ethnicity (OR=7.84; 95%CI 3.25-18.89) and cosmetic tattooing (OR=31.7; 95%CI 3.25-323.87) were independently associated with HCV-infection. Phylogenetic analysis revealed six distinct HCV subtypes, all HCV-genotype 2 (HCV-2): subtype 2f (also circulating in Indonesia) plus five yet unassigned HCV-2 subtypes exclusively linked to Suriname.

Variations in Multiple Birth Rates and Impact on Perinatal Outcomes in Europe.

OBJECTIVE: Infants from multiple pregnancies have higher rates of preterm birth, stillbirth and neonatal death and differences in multiple birth rates (MBR) exist between countries. We aimed to describe differences in MBR in Europe and to investigate the impact of these differences on adverse perinatal outcomes at a population level. METHODS: We used national aggregate birth data on multiple pregnancies, maternal age, gestational age (GA), stillbirth and neonatal death collected in the Euro-Peristat project (29 countries in 2010, N = 5 074 643 births). We also used European Society of Human Reproduction and Embryology (ESHRE) data on assisted conception and single embryo transfer (SET). The impact of MBR on outcomes was studied using meta-analysis techniques with random-effects models to derive pooled risk ratios (pRR) overall and for four groups of country defined by their MBR. We computed population attributable risks (PAR) for these groups. RESULTS: In 2010, the average MBR was 16.8 per 1000 women giving birth, ranging from 9.1 (Romania) to 26.5 (Cyprus). Compared to singletons, multiples had a nine-fold increased risk (pRR 9.4, 95% Cl 9.1-9.8) of preterm birth (<37 weeks GA), an almost 12-fold increased risk (pRR 11.7, 95% CI 11.0-12.4) of very preterm birth (<32 weeks GA). Pooled RR were 2.4 (95% Cl 1.5-3.6) for fetal mortality at or after 28 weeks GA and 7.0 (95% Cl 6.1-8.0) for neonatal mortality. PAR of neonatal death and very preterm birth were higher in countries with high MBR compared to low MBR (17.1% (95% CI 13.8-20.2) versus 9.8% (95% Cl 9.6-11.0) for neonatal death and 29.6% (96% CI 28.5-30.6) versus 17.5% (95% CI 15.7-18.3) for very preterm births, respectively). CONCLUSIONS: Wide variations in MBR and their impact on population outcomes imply that efforts by countries to reduce MBR could improve perinatal outcomes, enabling better long-term child health.